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Oliver Cromwell, Puritan leader of the Parliamentary side of the Civil War, declared England a republic, or the \'Commonwealth\', in 1649. As Lord Protector, (he refused the title, \'King\'), from 1653, Cromwell established greater religious toleration and raised England\'s prestige in Europe on the basis of an alliance with France against Spain. He was quick to curb any opposition, and in 1649, he executed the leaders of the Levellers, (an influential democratic party in the English Civil War), following their demand for radical reform. Cromwell also crushed Irish resistance in 1649-50, and defeated the Scots - who had acknowledged Charles I\'s son as king - at Dunbar in 1650, and in Worcester in 1651. The Scottish parliament was suspended and Scottish representatives attended a united parliament in Westminster.Cromwell\'s response to opposition became increasingly similar to Charles I\'s: he tended to expel any member (and dissolve any parliament) which challenged his views.
After a period of military dictatorship, his last parliament offered him the crown; he refused because he feared the army\'s republicanism.When Cromwell died in 1658, he was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son, Richard. As the Commonwealth collapsed into financial chaos and disputes between the military and administration increased, parliament was dissolved and Richard Cromwell was overthrown.
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